path: root/doc/rfc/rfc3869.txt

Network Working Group                                   R. Atkinson, Ed.
Request for Comments: 3869                                 S. Floyd, Ed.
Category: Informational                      Internet Architecture Board
                                                             August 2004


                    IAB Concerns and Recommendations
               Regarding Internet Research and Evolution

Status of this Memo

   This memo provides information for the Internet community.  It does
   not specify an Internet standard of any kind.  Distribution of this
   memo is unlimited.

Copyright Notice

   Copyright (C) The Internet Society (2004).

Abstract

   This document discusses IAB concerns that ongoing research is needed
   to further the evolution of the Internet infrastructure, and that
   consistent, sufficient non-commercial funding is needed to enable
   such research.

Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2
       1.1.  Document Organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2
       1.2.  IAB Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3
       1.3.  Contributions to this Document . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4
   2.  History of Internet Research and Research Funding. . . . . . .  4
       2.1.  Prior to 1980. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4
       2.2.  1980s and early 1990s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  5
       2.3.  Mid-1990s to 2003. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  6
       2.4.  Current Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  6
   3.  Open Internet Research Topics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  7
       3.1.  Scope and Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  7
       3.2.  Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  8
             3.2.1.   Domain Name System (DNS). . . . . . . . . . . .  8
             3.2.2.   New Namespaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  9
       3.3.  Routing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  9
             3.3.1.   Inter-domain Routing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
             3.3.2.   Routing Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
             3.3.3.   Routing Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
             3.3.4.   Mobile and Ad-Hoc Routing . . . . . . . . . . . 13
       3.4.  Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13



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             3.4.1.   Formal Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
             3.4.2.   Key Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
             3.4.3.   Cryptography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
             3.4.4.   Security for Distributed Computing. . . . . . . 15
             3.4.5.   Deployment Considerations in Security . . . . . 15
             3.4.6.   Denial of Service Protection. . . . . . . . . . 16
       3.5.  Network Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
             3.5.1.   Managing Networks, Not Devices. . . . . . . . . 16
             3.5.2.   Enhanced Monitoring Capabilities. . . . . . . . 17
             3.5.3.   Customer Network Management . . . . . . . . . . 17
             3.5.4.   Autonomous Network Management . . . . . . . . . 17
       3.6.  Quality of Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
             3.6.1.   Inter-Domain QoS Architecture . . . . . . . . . 18
             3.6.2.   New Queuing Disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
       3.7.  Congestion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
       3.8.  Studying the Evolution of the Internet Infrastructure. . 20
       3.9.  Middleboxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
       3.10. Internet Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
       3.11. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
       3.12. Meeting the Needs of the Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
       3.13. Freely Distributable Prototypes. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
   4.  Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
   5.  Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
   6.  Security Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
   7.  Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
   8.  Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
   9.  Full Copyright Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

1.  Introduction

   This document discusses the history of funding for Internet research,
   expresses concern about the current state of such funding, and
   outlines several specific areas that the IAB believes merit
   additional research.  Current funding levels for Internet research
   are not generally adequate, and several important research areas are
   significantly underfunded.  This situation needs to be rectified for
   the Internet to continue its evolution and development.

1.1.  Document Organization

   The first part of the document is a high-level discussion of the
   history of funding for Internet research to provide some historical
   context to this document.  The early funding of Internet research was
   largely from the U.S. government, followed by a period in the second
   half of the 1990s of commercial funding and of funding from several
   governments.  However, the commercial funding for Internet research
   has been reduced due to the recent economic downturn.




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   The second part of the document provides an incomplete set of open
   Internet research topics.  These are only examples, intended to
   illustrate the breadth of open research topics.  This second section
   supports the general thesis that ongoing research is needed to
   further the evolution of the Internet infrastructure.  This includes
   research on the medium-time-scale evolution of the Internet
   infrastructure as well as research on longer-time-scale grand
   challenges.  This also includes many research issues that are already
   being actively investigated in the Internet research community.

   Areas that are discussed in this section include the following:
   naming, routing, security, network management, and transport.  Issues
   that require more research also include more general architectural
   issues such as layering and communication between layers.  In
   addition, general topics discussed in this section include modeling,
   measurement, simulation, test-beds, etc.  We are focusing on topics
   that are related to the IETF and IRTF (Internet Research Task Force)
   agendas.  (For example, Grid issues are not discussed in this
   document because they are addressed through the Global Grid Forum and
   other Grid-specific organizations, not in the IETF.)

   Where possible, the examples in this document point to separate
   documents on these issues, and only give a high-level summary of the
   issues raised in those documents.

1.2.  IAB Concerns

   In the aftermath of September 11 2001, there seems to be a renewed
   interest by governments in funding research for Internet-related
   security issues.  From [Jackson02]: "It is generally agreed that the
   security and reliability of the basic protocols underlying the
   Internet have not received enough attention because no one has a
   proprietary interest in them".

   That quote brings out a key issue in funding for Internet research,
   which is that because no single organization (e.g., no single
   government, software company, equipment vendor, or network operator)
   has a sense of ownership of the global Internet infrastructure,
   research on the general issues of the Internet infrastructure are
   often not adequately funded.  In our current challenging economic
   climate, it is not surprising that commercial funding sources are
   more likely to fund that research that leads to a direct competitive
   advantage.

   The principal thesis of this document is that if commercial funding
   is the main source of funding for future Internet research, the
   future of the Internet infrastructure could be in trouble.  In
   addition to issues about which projects are funded, the funding



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   source can also affect the content of the research, for example,
   towards or against the development of open standards, or taking
   varying degrees of care about the effect of the developed protocols
   on the other traffic on the Internet.

   At the same time, many significant research contributions in
   networking have come from commercial funding.  However, for most of
   the topics in this document, relying solely on commercially-funded
   research would not be adequate.  Much of today's commercial funding
   is focused on technology transition, taking results from non-
   commercial research and putting them into shipping commercial
   products.  We have not tried to delve into each of the research
   issues below to discuss, for each issue, what are the potentials and
   limitations of commercial funding for research in that area.

   On a more practical note, if there was no commercial funding for
   Internet research, then few research projects would be taken to
   completion with implementations, deployment, and follow-up
   evaluation.

   While it is theoretically possible for there to be too much funding
   for Internet research, that is far from the current problem.  There
   is also much that could be done within the network research community
   to make Internet research more focused and productive, but that would
   belong in a separate document.

1.3.  Contributions to this Document

   A number of people have directly contributed text for this document,
   even though, following current conventions, the official RFC author
   list includes only the key editors of the document.  The
   Acknowledgements section at the end of the document thanks other
   people who contributed to this document in some form.

2.  History of Internet Research and Research Funding

2.1.  Prior to 1980

   Most of the early research into packet-switched networks was
   sponsored by the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
   (DARPA) [CSTB99].  This includes the initial design, implementation,
   and deployment of the ARPAnet connecting several universities and
   other DARPA contractors.  The ARPAnet originally came online in the
   late 1960s.  It grew in size during the 1970s, still chiefly with
   DARPA funding, and demonstrated the utility of packet-switched
   networking.





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   DARPA funding for Internet design started in 1973, just four years
   after the initial ARPAnet deployment.  The support for Internet
   design was one result of prior DARPA funding for packet radio and
   packet satellite research.  The existence of multiple networks
   (ARPAnet, packet radio, and packet satellite) drove the need for
   internetworking research.  The Internet arose in large measure as a
   consequence of DARPA research funding for these three networks -- and
   arise only incidentally from the commercially-funded work at Xerox
   PARC on Ethernet.

2.2.  1980s and early 1990s

   The ARPAnet converted to the Internet Protocol (IP) on January 1,
   1983, approximately 20 years before this document was written.
   Throughout the 1980s, the U.S. Government continued strong research
   and development funding for Internet technology.  DARPA continued to
   be the key funding source, but was supplemented by other DoD (U.S.
   Department of Defense) funding (e.g., via the Defense Data Network
   (DDN) program of the Defense Communication Agency (DCA)) and other
   U.S. Government funding (e.g., U.S. Department of Energy (DoE)
   funding for research networks at DoE national laboratories, (U.S.)
   National Science Foundation (NSF) funding for academic institutions).
   This funding included basic research, applied research (including
   freely distributable prototypes), the purchase of IP-capable
   products, and operating support for the IP-based government networks
   such as ARPAnet, ESnet, MILnet, the NASA Science Internet, and
   NSFnet.

   During the 1980s, the U.S. DoD desired to leave the business of
   providing operational network services to academic institutions, so
   funding for most academic activities moved over to the NSF during the
   decade.  NSF's initial work included sponsorship of CSnet in 1981.
   By 1986, NSF was also sponsoring various research projects into
   networking (e.g., Mills' work on Fuzzballs).  In the late 1980s, NSF
   created the NSFnet backbone and sponsored the creation of several NSF
   regional networks (e.g., SURAnet) and interconnections with several
   international research networks.  NSF also funded gigabit networking
   research, through the Corporation for National Research Initiatives
   (CNRI), starting in the late 1980s.  It is important to note that the
   NSF sponsorship was focused on achieving core NSF goals, such as
   connecting scientists at leading universities to NSF supercomputing
   centers.  The needs of high-performance remote access to
   supercomputers drove the overall NSFnet performance.  As a side
   effect, this meant that students and faculty at those universities
   enjoyed a relatively high-performance Internet environment.  As those
   students graduated, they drove both commercial use of the Internet
   and the nascent residential market.  It is no accident that this was
   the environment from which the world wide web emerged.



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   Most research funding outside the U.S. during the 1980s and early
   1990s was focused on the ISO OSI networking project or on then-new
   forms of network media (e.g., wireless, broadband access).  The
   European Union was a significant source of research funding for the
   networking community in Europe during this period.  Some of the best
   early work in gigabit networking was undertaken in the UK and Sweden.

2.3.  Mid-1990s to 2003

   Starting in the middle 1990s, U.S. Government funding for Internet
   research and development was significantly reduced.  The premise for
   this was that the growing Internet industry would pay for whatever
   research and development that was needed.  Some funding for Internet
   research and development has continued in this period from European
   and Asian organizations (e.g., the WIDE Project in Japan [WIDE]).
   Reseaux IP Europeens [RIPE] is an example of market-funded networking
   research in Europe during this period.

   Experience during this period has been that commercial firms have
   often focused on donating equipment to academic institutions and
   promoting somewhat vocationally-focused educational projects.  Many
   of the commercially-funded research and development projects appear
   to have been selected because they appeared likely to give the
   funding source a specific short-term economic advantage over its
   competitors.  Higher risk, more innovative research proposals
   generally have not been funded by industry.  A common view in Silicon
   Valley has been that established commercial firms are not very good
   at transitioning cutting edge research into products, but were
   instead good at buying small startup firms who had successfully
   transitioned such cutting edge research into products.
   Unfortunately, small startup companies are generally unable
   financially to fund any research themselves.

2.4.  Current Status

   The result of reduced U.S. Government funding and profit-focused,
   low-risk, short-term industry funding has been a decline in higher-
   risk but more innovative research activities.  Industry has also been
   less interested in research to evolve the overall Internet
   architecture, because such work does not translate into a competitive
   advantage for the firm funding such work.

   The IAB believes that it would be helpful for governments and other
   non-commercial sponsors to increase their funding of both basic
   research and applied research relating to the Internet, and to
   sustain these funding levels going forward.





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3.  Open Internet Research Topics

   This section primarily discusses some specific topics that the IAB
   believes merit additional research.  Research, of course, includes
   not just devising a theory, algorithm, or mechanism to accomplish a
   goal, but also evaluating the general efficacy of the approach and
   then the benefits vs. the costs of deploying that algorithm or
   mechanism.  Important cautionary notes about this discussion are
   given in the next sub-section.  This particular set of topics is not
   intended to be comprehensive, but instead is intended to demonstrate
   the breadth of open Internet research questions.

   Other discussions of problems of the Internet that merit further
   research include the following:
   [CIPB02,Claffy03a,Floyd,NSF03a,NSF03b].

3.1.  Scope and Limitations

   This document is NOT intended as a guide for public funding agencies
   as to exactly which projects or proposals should or should not be
   funded.

   In particular, this document is NOT intended to be a comprehensive
   list of *all* of the research questions that are important to further
   the evolution of the Internet; that would be a daunting task, and
   would presuppose a wider and more intensive effort than we have
   undertaken in this document.

   Similarly, this document is not intended to list the research
   questions that are judged to be only of peripheral importance, or to
   survey the current (global; governmental, commercial, and academic)
   avenues for funding for Internet research, or to make specific
   recommendations about which areas need additional funding.  The
   purpose of the document is to persuade the reader that ongoing
   research is needed towards the continued evolution of the Internet
   infrastructure; the purpose is not to make binding pronouncements
   about which specific areas are and are not worthy of future funding.

   For some research clearly relevant to the future evolution of the
   Internet, there are grand controversies between competing proposals
   or competing schools of thought; it is not the purpose of this
   document to take positions in these controversies, or to take
   positions on the nature of the solutions for areas needing further
   research.







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   That all carefully noted, the remainder of this section discusses a
   broad set of research areas, noting a subset of particular topics of
   interest in each of those research areas.  Again, this list is NOT
   comprehensive, but rather is intended to suggest that a broad range
   of ongoing research is needed, and to propose some candidate topics.

3.1.1.  Terminology

   Several places in this document refer to 'network operators'.  By
   that term, we intend to include anyone or any organization that
   operates an IP-based network; we are not using that term in the
   narrow meaning of commercial network service providers.

3.2.  Naming

   The Internet currently has several different namespaces, including IP
   addresses, sockets (specified by the IP address, upper-layer
   protocol, and upper-layer port number), Autonomous System (AS)
   number, and the Fully-Qualified Domain Name (FQDN).  Many of the
   Internet's namespaces are supported by the widely deployed Domain
   Name System [RFC-3467] or by various Internet applications [RFC-2407,
   Section 4.6.2.1]

3.2.1.  Domain Name System (DNS)

   The DNS system, while it works well given its current constraints,
   has several stress points.

   The current DNS system relies on UDP for transport, rather than SCTP
   or TCP.  Given the very large number of clients using a typical DNS
   server, it is desirable to minimize the state on the DNS server side
   of the connection.  UDP does this well, so it is a reasonable choice,
   though this has other implications, for example a reliance on UDP
   fragmentation.  With IPv6, intermediate fragmentation is not allowed
   and Path MTU Discovery is mandated.  However, the amount of state
   required to deploy Path MTU Discovery for IPv6 on a DNS server might
   be a significant practical problem.

   One implication of this is that research into alternative transport
   protocols, designed more for DNS-like applications where there are
   very many clients using each server, might be useful.  Of particular
   interest would be transport protocols with little burden for the DNS
   server, even if that increased the burden somewhat for the DNS
   client.

   Additional study of DNS caching, both currently available caching
   techniques and also of potential new caching techniques, might be
   helpful in finding ways to reduce the offered load for a typical DNS



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   server.  In particular, examination of DNS caching through typical
   commercial firewalls might be interesting if it lead to alternative
   firewall implementations that were less of an obstacle to DNS
   caching.

   The community lacks a widely-agreed-upon set of metrics for measuring
   DNS server performance.  It would be helpful if people would
   seriously consider what characteristics of the DNS system should be
   measured.

   Some in the community would advocate replacing the current DNS system
   with something better.  Past attempts to devise a better approach
   have not yielded results that persuaded the community to change.
   Proposed work in this area could be very useful, but might require
   careful scrutiny to avoid falling into historic design pitfalls.

   With regards to DNS security, major technical concerns include
   finding practical methods for signing very large DNS zones (e.g., and
   tools to make it easier to manage secure DNS infrastructure.

   Most users are unable to distinguish a DNS-related failure from a
   more general network failure.  Hence, maintaining the integrity and
   availability of the Domain Name System is very important for the
   future health of the Internet.

3.2.2.  New Namespaces

   Additionally, the Namespace Research Group (NSRG) of the Internet
   Research Task Force (IRTF) studied adding one or more additional
   namespaces to the Internet Architecture [LD2002].  Many members of
   the IRTF NSRG believe that there would be significant architectural
   benefit to adding one or more additional namespaces to the Internet
   Architecture.  Because smooth consensus on that question or on the
   properties of a new namespace was not obtained, the IRTF NSRG did not
   make a formal recommendation to the IETF community regarding
   namespaces.  The IAB believes that this is an open research question
   worth examining further.

   Finally, we believe that future research into the evolution of
   Internet-based distributed computing might well benefit from studying
   adding additional namespaces as part of a new approach to distributed
   computing.

3.3.  Routing

   The currently deployed unicast routing system works reasonably well
   for most users.  However, the current unicast routing architecture is
   suboptimal in several areas, including the following: end-to-end



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   convergence times in global-scale catenets (a system of networks
   interconnected via gateways); the ability of the existing inter-
   domain path-vector algorithm to scale well beyond 200K prefixes; the
   ability of both intra-domain and inter-domain routing to use multiple
   metrics and multiple kinds of metrics concurrently; and the ability
   of IPv4 and IPv6 to support widespread site multi-homing without
   undue adverse impact on the inter-domain routing system.  Integrating
   policy into routing is also a general concern, both for intra-domain
   and inter-domain routing.  In many cases, routing policy is directly
   tied to economic issues for the network operators, so applied
   research into routing ideally would consider economic considerations
   as well as technical considerations.

   This is an issue for which the commercial interest is clear, but that
   seems unlikely to be solved through commercial funding for research,
   in the absence of a consortium of some type.

3.3.1.  Inter-domain Routing

   The current operational inter-domain routing system has between
   150,000 and 200,000 routing prefixes in the default-free zone (DFZ)
   [RFC-3221].  ASIC technology obviates concerns about the ability to
   forward packets at very high speeds.  ASIC technology also obviates
   concerns about the time required to perform longest-prefix-match
   computations.  However, some senior members of the Internet routing
   community have concerns that the end-to-end convergence properties of
   the global Internet might hit fundamental algorithmic limitations
   (i.e., not hardware limitations) when the DFZ is somewhere between
   200,000 and 300,000 prefixes.  Research into whether this concern is
   well-founded in scientific terms seems very timely.

   Separately from the above concern, recent work has shown that there
   can be significant BGP convergence issues today.  At present, it
   appears that the currently observed convergence issues relate to how
   BGP has been configured by network operators, rather than being any
   sort of fundamental algorithmic limitation [MGVK02].  This
   convergence time issue makes the duration of the apparent network
   outage much longer than it should be.  Additional applied research
   into which aspects of a BGP configuration have the strongest impact
   on convergence times would help mitigate the currently observed
   operational issues.

   Also, inter-domain routing currently requires significant human
   engineering of specific inter-AS paths to ensure that reasonably
   optimal paths are used by actual traffic.  Ideally, the inter-domain
   routing system would automatically cause reasonably optimal paths to
   be chosen.  Recent work indicates that improved BGP policy mechanisms




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   might help ensure that reasonably optimal paths are normally used for
   inter-domain IP traffic.  [SMA03]  Continued applied research in this
   area might lead to substantially better technical approaches.

   The current approach to site multi-homing has the highly undesirable
   side-effect of significantly increasing the growth rate of prefix
   entries in the DFZ (by impairing the deployment of prefix
   aggregation).  Research is needed into new routing architectures that
   can support large-scale site multi-homing without the undesirable
   impacts on inter-domain routing of the current multi-homing
   technique.

   The original application for BGP was in inter-domain routing,
   primarily within service provider networks but also with some use by
   multi-homed sites.  However, some are now trying to use BGP in other
   contexts, for example highly mobile environments, where it is less
   obviously well suited.  Research into inter-domain routing and/or
   intra-domain policy routing might lead to other approaches for any
   emerging environments where the current BGP approach is not the
   optimal one.

3.3.2.  Routing Integrity

   Recently there has been increased awareness of the longstanding issue
   of deploying strong authentication into the Internet inter-domain
   routing system.  Currently deployed mechanisms (e.g., BGP TCP MD5
   [RFC-2385], OSPF MD5, RIP MD5 [RFC-2082]) provide cryptographic
   authentication of routing protocol messages, but no authentication of
   the actual routing data.  Recent proposals (e.g., S-BGP [KLMS2000])
   for improving this in inter-domain routing appear difficult to deploy
   across the Internet, in part because of their reliance on a single
   trust hierarchy (e.g., a single PKI).  Similar proposals (e.g., OSPF
   with Digital Signatures, [RFC-2154]) for intra-domain routing are
   argued to be computationally infeasible to deploy in a large network.

   A recurring challenge with any form of inter-domain routing
   authentication is that there is no single completely accurate source
   of truth about which organizations have the authority to advertise
   which address blocks.  Alternative approaches to authentication of
   data in the routing system need to be developed.  In particular, the
   ability to perform partial authentication of routing data would
   facilitate incremental deployment of routing authentication
   mechanisms.  Also, the ability to use non-hierarchical trust models
   (e.g., the web of trust used in the PGP application) might facilitate
   incremental deployment and might resolve existing concerns about
   centralized administration of the routing system, hence it merits
   additional study and consideration.




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3.3.3.  Routing Algorithms

   The current Internet routing system relies primarily on two
   algorithms.  Link-state routing uses the Dijkstra algorithm
   [Dijkstra59].  Distance-Vector routing (e.g., RIP) and Path-Vector
   routing (e.g., BGP) use the Bellman-Ford algorithm [Bellman1957,
   FF1962].  Additional ongoing basic research into graph theory as
   applied to routing is worthwhile and might yield algorithms that
   would enable a new routing architecture or otherwise provide
   improvements to the routing system.

   Currently deployed multicast routing relies on the Deering RPF
   algorithm [Deering1988].  Ongoing research into alternative multicast
   routing algorithms and protocols might help alleviate current
   concerns with the scalability of multicast routing.

   The deployed Internet routing system assumes that the shortest path
   is always the best path.  This is provably false, however it is a
   reasonable compromise given the routing protocols currently
   available.  The Internet lacks deployable approaches for policy-based
   routing or routing with alternative metrics (i.e., some metric other
   than the number of hops to the destination).  Examples of alternative
   policies include: the path with lowest monetary cost; the path with
   the lowest probability of packet loss; the path with minimized
   jitter; and the path with minimized latency.  Policy metrics also
   need to take business relationships into account.  Historic work on
   QoS-based routing has tended to be unsuccessful in part because it
   did not adequately consider economic and commercial considerations of
   the routing system and in part because of inadequate consideration of
   security implications.

   Transitioning from the current inter-domain routing system to any new
   inter-domain routing system is unlikely to be a trivial exercise.  So
   any proposal for a new routing system needs to carefully consider and
   document deployment strategies, transition mechanisms, and other
   operational considerations.  Because of the cross-domain
   interoperability aspect of inter-domain routing, smooth transitions
   from one inter-domain routing system are likely to be difficult to
   accomplish.  Separately, the inter-domain routing system lacks strong
   market forces that would encourage migration to better technical
   approaches.  Hence, it appears unlikely that the commercial sector
   will be the source of a significantly improved inter-domain routing
   system.








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3.3.4.  Mobile and Ad-Hoc Routing

   While some of the earliest DARPA-sponsored networking research
   involved packet radio networks, mobile routing [IM1993] and mobile
   ad-hoc routing [RFC-2501] are relatively recent arrivals in the
   Internet, and are not yet widely deployed.  The current approaches
   are not the last word in either of those arenas.  We believe that
   additional research into routing support for mobile hosts and mobile
   networks is needed.  Additional research for ad-hoc mobile hosts and
   mobile networks is also worthwhile.  Ideally, mobile routing and
   mobile ad-hoc routing capabilities should be native inherent
   capabilities of the Internet routing architecture.  This probably
   will require a significant evolution from the existing Internet
   routing architecture.  (NB: The term "mobility" as used here is not
   limited to mobile telephones, but instead is very broadly defined,
   including laptops that people carry, cars/trains/aircraft, and so
   forth.)

   Included in this topic are a wide variety of issues.  The more
   distributed and dynamic nature of partially or completely self-
   organizing routing systems (including the associated end nodes)
   creates unique security challenges (especially relating to
   Authorization, Authentication, and Accounting, and relating to key
   management).  Scalability of wireless networks can be difficult to
   measure or to achieve.  Enforced hierarchy is one approach, but can
   be very limiting.  Alternative, less constraining approaches to
   wireless scalability are desired.  Because wireless link-layer
   protocols usually have some knowledge of current link characteristics
   such as link quality, sublayer congestion conditions, or transient
   channel behavior, it is desirable to find ways to let network-layer
   routing use such data.  This raises architectural questions of what
   the proper layering should be, which functions should be in which
   layer, and also practical considerations of how and when such
   information sharing should occur in real implementations.

3.4.  Security

   The Internet has a reputation for not having sufficient security.  In
   fact, the Internet has a number of security mechanisms standardized,
   some of which are widely deployed.  However, there are a number of
   open research questions relating to Internet security.  In
   particular, security mechanisms need to be incrementally deployable
   and easy to use.  "[Security] technology must be easy to use, or it
   will not be configured correctly.  If mis-configured, security will
   be lost, but things will `work'" [Schiller03].






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3.4.1.  Formal Methods

   There is an ongoing need for funding of basic research relating to
   Internet security, including funding of formal methods research that
   relates to security algorithms, protocols, and systems.

   For example, it would be beneficial to have more formal study of
   non-hierarchical trust models (e.g., PGP's Web-of-Trust model).  Use
   of a hierarchical trust model can create significant limitations in
   how one might approach securing components of the Internet, for
   example the inter-domain routing system.  So research to develop new
   trust models suited for the Internet or on the applicability of
   existing non-hierarchical trust models to existing Internet problems
   would be worthwhile.

   While there has been some work on the application of formal methods
   to cryptographic algorithms and cryptographic protocols, existing
   techniques for formal evaluation of algorithms and protocols lack
   sufficient automation.  This lack of automation means that many
   protocols aren't formally evaluated in a timely manner.  This is
   problematic for the Internet because formal evaluation has often
   uncovered serious anomalies in cryptographic protocols.  The creation
   of automated tools for applying formal methods to cryptographic
   algorithms and/or protocols would be very helpful.

3.4.2.  Key Management

   A recurring challenge to the Internet community is how to design,
   implement, and deploy key management appropriate to the myriad of
   security contexts existing in the global Internet.  Most current work
   in unicast key management has focused on hierarchical trust models,
   because much of the existing work has been driven by corporate or
   military "top-down" operating models.

   The paucity of key management methods applicable to non-hierarchical
   trust models (see above) is a significant constraint on the
   approaches that might be taken to secure components of the Internet.

   Research focused on removing those constraints by developing
   practical key management methods applicable to non-hierarchical trust
   models would be very helpful.

   Topics worthy of additional research include key management
   techniques, such as non-hierarchical key management architectures
   (e.g., to support non-hierarchical trust models; see above), that are
   useful by ad-hoc groups in mobile networks and/or distributed
   computing.




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   Although some progress has been made in recent years, scalable
   multicast key management is far from being a solved problem.
   Existing approaches to scalable multicast key management add
   significant constraints on the problem scope in order to come up with
   a deployable technical solution.  Having a more general approach to
   scalable multicast key management (i.e., one having broader
   applicability and fewer constraints) would enhance the Internet's
   capabilities.

   In many cases, attribute negotiation is an important capability of a
   key management protocol.  Experience with the Internet Key Exchange
   (IKE) to date has been that it is unduly complex.  Much of IKE's
   complexity derives from its very general attribute negotiation
   capabilities.  A new key management approach that supported
   significant attribute negotiation without creating challenging levels
   of deployment and operations complexity would be helpful.

3.4.3.  Cryptography

   There is an ongoing need to continue the open-world research funding
   into both cryptography and cryptanalysis.  Most governments focus
   their cryptographic research in the military-sector.  While this is
   understandable, those efforts often have limited (or no) publications
   in the open literature.  Since the Internet engineering community
   must work from the open literature, it is important that open-world
   research continues in the future.

3.4.4.  Security for Distributed Computing

   MIT's Project Athena was an important and broadly successful research
   project into distributed computing.  Project Athena developed the
   Kerberos [RFC-1510] security system, which has significant deployment
   today in campus environments.  However, inter-realm Kerberos is
   neither as widely deployed nor perceived as widely successful as
   single-realm Kerberos.  The need for scalable inter-domain user
   authentication is increasingly acute as ad-hoc computing and mobile
   computing become more widely deployed.  Thus, work on scalable
   mechanisms for mobile, ad-hoc, and non-hierarchical inter-domain
   authentication would be very helpful.

3.4.5.  Deployment Considerations in Security

   Lots of work has been done on theoretically perfect security that is
   impossible to deploy.  Unfortunately, the S-BGP proposal is an
   example of a good research product that has significant unresolved
   deployment challenges.  It is far from obvious how one could widely
   deploy S-BGP without previously deploying a large-scale inter-domain
   public-key infrastructure and also centralizing route advertisement



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   policy enforcement in the Routing Information Registries or some
   similar body.  Historically, public-key infrastructures have been
   either very difficult or impossible to deploy at large scale.
   Security mechanisms that need additional infrastructure have not been
   deployed well.  We desperately need security that is general, easy to
   install, and easy to manage.

3.4.6.  Denial of Service Protection

   Historically, the Internet community has mostly ignored pure Denial
   of Service (DoS) attacks.  This was appropriate at one time since
   such attacks were rare and are hard to defend against.  However, one
   of the recent trends in adversarial software (e.g., viruses, worms)
   has been the incorporation of features that turn the infected host
   into a "zombie".  Such zombies can be remotely controlled to mount a
   distributed denial of service attack on some victim machine.  In many
   cases, the authorized operators of systems are not aware that some or
   all of their systems have become zombies.  It appears that the
   presence of non-trivial numbers of zombies in the global Internet is
   now endemic, which makes distributed denial of service attacks a much
   larger concern.  So Internet threat models need to assume the
   presence of such zombies in significant numbers.  This makes the
   design of protocols resilient in the presence of distributed denial
   of service attacks very important to the health of the Internet.
   Some work has been done on this front [Savage00], [MBFIPS01], but
   more is needed.

3.5.  Network Management

   The Internet had early success in network device monitoring with the
   Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) and its associated
   Management Information Base (MIB).  There has been comparatively less
   success in managing networks, in contrast to the monitoring of
   individual devices.  Furthermore, there are a number of operator
   requirements not well supported by the current Internet management
   framework.  It is desirable to enhance the current Internet network
   management architecture to more fully support operational needs.

   Unfortunately, network management research has historically been very
   underfunded.  Operators have complained that existing solutions are
   inadequate.  Research is needed to find better solutions.

3.5.1.  Managing Networks, Not Devices

   At present there are few or no good tools for managing a whole
   network instead of isolated devices.  For example, the lack of
   appropriate network management tools has been cited as one of the
   major barriers to the widespread deployment of IP multicast [Diot00,



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   SM03].  Current network management protocols, such as the Simple
   Network Management Protocol (SNMP), are fine for reading status of
   well-defined objects from individual boxes.  Managing networks
   instead of isolated devices requires the ability to view the network
   as a large distributed system.  Research is needed on scalable
   distributed data aggregation mechanisms, scalable distributed event
   correlation mechanisms, and distributed and dependable control
   mechanisms.

   Applied research into methods of managing sets of networked devices
   seems worthwhile.  Ideally, such a management approach would support
   distributed management, rather than being strictly centralized.

3.5.2.  Enhanced Monitoring Capabilities

   SNMP does not always scale well to monitoring large numbers of
   objects in many devices in different parts of the network.  An
   alternative approach worth exploring is how to provide scalable and
   distributed monitoring, not on individual devices, but instead on
   groups of devices and the network-as-a-whole.  This requires scalable
   techniques for data aggregation and event correlation of network
   status data originating from numerous locations in the network.

3.5.3.  Customer Network Management

   An open issue related to network management is helping users and
   others to identify and resolve problems in the network.  If a user
   can't access a web page, it would be useful if the user could find
   out, easily, without having to run ping and traceroute, whether the
   problem was that the web server was down, that the network was
   partitioned due to a link failure, that there was heavy congestion
   along the path, that the DNS name couldn't be resolved, that the
   firewall prohibited the access, or that some other specific event
   occurred.

3.5.4.  Autonomous Network Management

   More research is needed to improve the degree of automation achieved
   by network management systems and to localize management.  Autonomous
   network management might involve the application of control theory,
   artificial intelligence or expert system technologies to network
   management problems.

3.6.  Quality of Service

   There has been an intensive body of research and development work on
   adding QoS to the Internet architecture for more than ten years now
   [RFC-1633, RFC-2474, RFC-3260, RFC-2205, RFC-2210], yet we still



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   don't have end-to-end QoS in the Internet [RFC-2990, RFC-3387].  The
   IETF is good at defining individual QoS mechanisms, but poor at work
   on deployable QoS architectures.  Thus, while Differentiated Services
   (DiffServ) mechanisms have been standardized as per-hop behaviors,
   there is still much to be learned about the deployment of that or
   other QoS mechanisms for end-to-end QoS.  In addition to work on
   purely technical issues, this includes close attention to the
   economic models and deployment strategies that would enable an
   increased deployment of QoS in the network.

   In many cases, deployment of QoS mechanisms would significantly
   increase operational security risks [RFC-2990], so any new research
   on QoS mechanisms or architectures ought to specifically discuss the
   potential security issues associated with the new proposal(s) and how
   to mitigate those security issues.

   In some cases, the demand for QoS mechanisms has been diminished by
   the development of more resilient voice/video coding techniques that
   are better suited for the best-effort Internet than the older coding
   techniques that were originally designed for circuit-switched
   networks.

   One of the factors that has blunted the demand for QoS has been the
   transition of the Internet infrastructure from heavy congestion in
   the early 1990s, to overprovisioning in backbones and in many
   international links now.  Thus, research in QoS mechanisms also has
   to include some careful attention to the relative costs and benefits
   of QoS in different places in the network.  Applied research into QoS
   should include explicit consideration of economic issues of deploying
   and operating a QoS-enabled IP network [Clark02].

3.6.1.  Inter-Domain QoS Architecture

   Typically, a router in the deployed inter-domain Internet provides
   best-effort forwarding of IP packets, without regard for whether the
   source or destination of the packet is a direct customer of the
   operator of the router.  This property is a significant contributor
   to the current scalability of the global Internet and contributes to
   the difficulty of deploying inter-domain Quality of Service (QoS)
   mechanisms.

   Deploying existing Quality-of-Service (QoS) mechanisms, for example
   Differentiated Services or Integrated Services, across an inter-
   domain boundary creates a significant and easily exploited denial-of-
   service vulnerability for any network that provides inter-domain QoS
   support.  This has caused network operators to refrain from
   supporting inter-domain QoS.  The Internet would benefit from




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   additional research into alternative approaches to QoS, particularly
   into approaches that do not create such vulnerabilities and can be
   deployed end-to-end [RFC-2990].

   Also, current business models are not consistent with inter-domain
   QoS, in large part because it is impractical or impossible to
   authenticate the identity of the sender of would-be preferred traffic
   while still forwarding traffic at line-rate.  Absent such an ability,
   it is unclear how a network operator could bill or otherwise recover
   costs associated with providing that preferred service.  So any new
   work on inter-domain QoS mechanisms and architectures needs to
   carefully consider the economic and security implications of such
   proposals.

3.6.2.  New Queuing Disciplines

   The overall Quality-of-Service for traffic is in part determined by
   the scheduling and queue management mechanisms at the routers.  While
   there are a number of existing mechanisms (e.g., RED) that work well,
   it is possible that improved active queuing strategies might be
   devised.  Mechanisms that lowered the implementation cost in IP
   routers might help increase deployment of active queue management,
   for example.

3.7.  Congestion Control.

   TCP's congestion avoidance and control mechanisms, from 1988
   [Jacobson88], have been a key factor in maintaining the stability of
   the Internet, and are used by the bulk of the Internet's traffic.
   However, the congestion control mechanisms of the Internet need to be
   expanded and modified to meet a wide range of new requirements, from
   new applications such as streaming media and multicast to new
   environments such as wireless networks or very high bandwidth paths,
   and new requirements for minimizing queueing delay.  While there are
   significant bodies of work in several of these issues, considerably
   more needs to be done.

   We would note that research on TCP congestion control is also not yet
   "done", with much still to be accomplished in high-speed TCP, or in
   adding robust performance over paths with significant reordering,
   intermittent connectivity, non-congestive packet loss, and the like.

   Several of these issues bring up difficult fundamental questions
   about the potential costs and benefits of increased communication
   between layers.  Would it help transport to receive hints or other
   information from routing, from link layers, or from other transport-
   level connections?  If so, what would be the cost to robust operation
   across diverse environments?



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   For congestion control mechanisms in routers, active queue management
   and Explicit Congestion Notification are generally not yet deployed,
   and there are a range of proposals, in various states of maturity, in
   this area.  At the same time, there is a great deal that we still do
   not understand about the interactions of queue management mechanisms
   with other factors in the network.  Router-based congestion control
   mechanisms are also needed for detecting and responding to aggregate
   congestion such as in Distributed Denial of Service attacks and flash
   crowds.

   As more applications have the need to transfer very large files over
   high delay-bandwidth-product paths, the stresses on current
   congestion control mechanisms raise the question of whether we need
   more fine-grained feedback from routers.  This includes the challenge
   of allowing connections to avoid the delays of slow-start, and to
   rapidly make use of newly-available bandwidth.  On a more general
   level, we don't understand the potential and limitations for best-
   effort traffic over high delay-bandwidth-product paths, given the
   current feedback from routers, or the range of possibilities for more
   explicit feedback from routers.

   There is also a need for long-term research in congestion control
   that is separate from specific functional requirements like the ones
   listed above.  We know very little about congestion control dynamics
   or traffic dynamics of a large, complex network like the global
   Internet, with its heterogeneous and changing traffic mixes, link-
   level technologies, network protocols and router mechanisms, patterns
   of congestion, pricing models, and the like.  Expanding our knowledge
   in this area seems likely to require a rich mix of measurement,
   analysis, simulations, and experimentation.

3.8.  Studying the Evolution of the Internet Infrastructure

   The evolution of the Internet infrastructure has been frustratingly
   slow and difficult, with long stories about the difficulties in
   adding IPv6, QoS, multicast, and other functionality to the Internet.
   We need a more scientific understanding of the evolutionary
   potentials and evolutionary difficulties of the Internet
   infrastructure.

   This evolutionary potential is affected not only by the technical
   issues of the layered IP architecture, but by other factors as well.
   These factors include the changes in the environment over time (e.g.,
   the recent overprovisioning of backbones, the deployment of
   firewalls), and the role of the standardization process.  Economic
   and public policy factors are also critical, including the central
   fact of the Internet as a decentralized system, with key players
   being not only individuals, but also ISPs, companies, and entire



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   industries.  Deployment issues are also key factors in the evolution
   of the Internet, including the continual chicken-and-egg problem of
   having enough customers to merit rolling out a service whose utility
   depends on the size of the customer base in the first place.

   Overlay networks might serve as a transition technology for some new
   functionality, with an initial deployment in overlay networks, and
   with the new functionality moving later into the core if it seems
   warranted.

   There are also increased obstacles to the evolution of the Internet
   in the form of increased complexity [WD02], unanticipated feature
   interactions [Kruse00], interactions between layers [CWWS92],
   interventions by middleboxes [RFC-3424], and the like.  Because
   increasing complexity appears inevitable, research is needed to
   understand architectural mechanisms that can accommodate increased
   complexity without decreasing robustness of performance in unknown
   environments, and without closing off future possibilities for
   evolution.  More concretely, research is needed on how to evolve the
   Internet will still maintaining its core strengths, such as the
   current degree of global addressability of hosts, end-to-end
   transparency of packet forwarding, and good performance for best-
   effort traffic.

3.9.  Middleboxes

   Research is needed to address the challenges posed by the wide range
   of middleboxes [RFC-3234].  This includes issues of security,
   control, data integrity, and on the general impact of middleboxes on
   the architecture.

   In many ways middleboxes are a direct outgrowth of commercial
   interests, but there is a need to look beyond the near-term needs for
   the technology, to research its broader implications and to explore
   ways to improve how middleboxes are integrated into the architecture.

3.10.  Internet Measurement

   A recurring challenge is measuring the Internet; there have been many
   discussions about the need for measurement studies as an integral
   part of Internet research [Claffy03].  In this discussion, we define
   measurement quite broadly.  For example, there are numerous
   challenges in measuring performance along any substantial Internet
   path, particularly when the path crosses administrative domain
   boundaries.  There are also challenges in measuring
   protocol/application usage on any high-speed Internet link.  Many of





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   the problems discussed above would benefit from increased frequency
   of measurement as well as improved quality of measurement on the
   deployed Internet.

   A key issue in network measurement is that most commercial Internet
   Service Providers consider the particular characteristics of their
   production IP network(s) to be trade secrets.  Ways need to be found
   for cooperative measurement studies, e.g., to allow legitimate non-
   commercial researchers to be able to measure relevant network
   parameters while also protecting the privacy rights of the measured
   ISPs.

   Absent measured data, there is possibly an over-reliance on network
   simulations in some parts of the Internet research community and
   probably insufficient validation that existing network simulation
   models are reasonably good representations of the deployed Internet
   (or of some plausible future Internet) [FK02].

   Without solid measurement of the current Internet behavior, it is
   very difficult to know what otherwise unknown operational problems
   exist that require attention, and it is equally difficult to fully
   understand the impact of changes (past or future) upon the Internet's
   actual behavioral characteristics.

3.11.  Applications

   Research is needed on a wide range of issues related to Internet
   applications.

   Taking email as one example application, research is needed on
   understanding the spam problem, and on investigating tools and
   techniques to mitigate the effects of spam, including tools and
   techniques that aid the implementation of legal and other non-
   technical anti-spam measures [ASRG].  "Spam" is a generic term for a
   range of significantly different types of unwanted bulk email, with
   many types of senders, content and traffic-generating techniques.  As
   one part of controlling spam, we need to develop a much better
   understanding of its many, different characteristics and their
   interactions with each other.

3.12.  Meeting the Needs of the Future

   As network size, link bandwidth, CPU capacity, and the number of
   users all increase, research will be needed to ensure that the
   Internet of the future scales to meet these increasing demands.  We
   have discussed some of these scaling issues in specific sections
   above.




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   However, for all of the research questions discussed in this
   document, the goal of the research must be not only to meet the
   challenges already experienced today, but also to meet the challenges
   that can be expected to emerge in the future.

3.13.  Freely Distributable Prototypes

   U.S.'s DARPA has historically funded development of freely
   distributable implementations of various Internet technologies (e.g.,
   TCP/IPv4, RSVP, IPv6, and IP security) in a variety of operating
   systems (e.g., 4.2 BSD, 4.3 BSD, 4.4 BSD, Tenex).  Experience has
   shown that a good way to speed deployment of a new technology is to
   provide an unencumbered, freely-distributable prototype that can be
   incorporated into commercial products as well as non-commercial
   prototypes.  Japan's WIDE Project has also funded some such work,
   primarily focused on IPv6 implementation for 4.4 BSD and Linux.
   [WIDE] We believe that applied research projects in networking will
   have an increased probability of success if the research project
   teams make their resulting software implementations freely available
   for both commercial and non-commercial uses.  Examples of successes
   here include the DARPA funding of TCP/IPv4 integration into the 4.x
   BSD operating system [MBKQ96], DARPA/USN funding of ESP/AH design and
   integration into 4.4 BSD [Atk96], as well as separate DARPA/USN and
   WIDE funding of freely distributable IPv6 prototypes [Atk96, WIDE].

4.  Conclusions

   This document has summarized the history of research funding for the
   Internet and highlighted examples of open research questions.  The
   IAB believes that more research is required to further the evolution
   of the Internet infrastructure, and that consistent, sufficient non-
   commercial funding is needed to enable such research.

   In case there is any confusion, in this document we are not
   suggesting any direct or indirect role for the IAB, the IETF, or the
   IRTF in handling any funding for Internet research.

5.  Acknowledgements

   The people who directly contributed to this document in some form
   include the following: Ran Atkinson, Guy Almes, Rob Austein, Vint
   Cerf, Jon Crowcroft, Sally Floyd, James Kempf, Joe Macker, Craig
   Partridge, Vern Paxson, Juergen Schoenwaelder, and Mike St. Johns.

   We are also grateful to Kim Claffy, Dave Crocker, Michael Eder, Eric
   Fleischman, Andrei Gurtov, Stephen Kent, J.P. Martin-Flatin, and
   Hilarie Orman for feedback on earlier drafts of this document.




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   We have also drawn from the following reports:
   [CIPB02,IST02,NV02,NSF02,NSF03,NSF03a].

6.  Security Considerations

   This document does not itself create any new security issues for the
   Internet community.  Security issues within the Internet Architecture
   primarily are discussed in Section 3.4 above.

7.  Informative References

   [ASRG]        Anti-Spam Research Group (ASRG) of the IRTF.  URL
                 "http://asrg.sp.am/".

   [Atk96]       R. Atkinson et al., "Implementation of IPv6 in 4.4
                 BSD", Proceedings of USENIX 1996 Annual Technical
                 Conference, USENIX Association, Berkeley, CA, USA.
                 January 1996.  URL
                 http://www.chacs.itd.nrl.navy.mil/publications/CHACS/
                 1996/1996atkinson-USENIX.pdf

   [Bellman1957] R.E. Bellman, "Dynamic Programming", Princeton
                 University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1957.

   [Claffy03]    K. Claffy, "Priorities and Challenges in Internet
                 Measurement, Simulation, and Analysis", Large Scale
                 Network meeting, (US) National Science Foundation,
                 Arlington, VA, USA.  10 June 2003.  URL
                 "http://www.caida.org/outreach/
                 presentations/2003/lsn20030610/".

   [Claffy03a]   K. Claffy, "Top Problems of the Internet and What
                 Sysadmins and Researchers Can Do To Help", plenary talk
                 at LISA'03, October 2003.  URL
                 "http://www.caida.org/outreach/presentations/
                 2003/netproblems_lisa03/".

   [Clark02]     D. D. Clark, "Deploying the Internet - why does it take
                 so long and, can research help?", Large-Scale
                 Networking Distinguished Lecture Series, (U.S.)
                 National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA, 8 January
                 2002.  URL: http://www.ngi-
                 supernet.org/conferences.html








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   [CSTB99]      Computer Science and Telecommunications Board, (U.S.)
                 National Research Council, "Funding a Revolution:
                 Government Support for Computing Research", National
                 Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1999.  URL
                 "http://www7.nationalacademies.org/cstb/
                 pub_revolution.html".

   [CIPB02]      Critical Infrastructure Protection Board, "National
                 Strategy to Secure Cyberspace", The White House,
                 Washington, DC, USA.  September 2002, URL
                 "http://www.whitehouse.gov/pcipb".

   [CWWS92]      J. Crowcroft, I. Wakeman, Z. Wang, and D. Sirovica, "Is
                 Layering Harmful?", IEEE Networks, Vol. 6, Issue 1, pp
                 20-24, January 1992.

   [Diot00]      C. Diot, et al., "Deployment Issues for the IP
                 Multicast Service and Architecture", IEEE Network,
                 January/February 2000.

   [Deering1988] S. Deering, "Multicast Routing in Internetworks and
                 LANs", ACM Computer Communications Review, Volume 18,
                 Issue 4, August 1988.

   [Dijkstra59]  E. Dijkstra, "A Note on Two Problems in Connexion with
                 Graphs", Numerische Mathematik, 1, 1959, pp.269-271.

   [FF1962]      L. R. Ford Jr. and D.R. Fulkerson, "Flows in Networks",
                 Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1962.

   [FK02]        S. Floyd and E. Kohler, "Internet Research Needs Better
                 Models", Proceedings of 1st Workshop on Hot Topics in
                 Networks (Hotnets-I),  Princeton, NJ, USA. October
                 2002.  URL
                 "http://www.icir.org/models/bettermodels.html".

   [IM1993]      J. Ioannidis and G. Maguire Jr., "The Design and
                 Implementation of a Mobile Internetworking
                 Architecture", Proceedings of the Winter USENIX
                 Technical Conference, pages 489-500, Berkeley, CA, USA,
                 January 1993.

   [IST02]       Research Networking in Europe - Striving for Global
                 Leadership, Information Society Technologies, 2002.
                 URL "http://www.cordis.lu/ist/rn/rn-brochure.htm".






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   [Jacobson88]  Van Jacobson, "Congestion Avoidance and Control",
                 Proceedings of ACM SIGCOMM 1988 Symposium, ACM SIGCOMM,
                 Stanford, CA, August 1988.  URL
                 "http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/jacobson88congestion.html".

   [Jackson02]   William Jackson, "U.S. should fund R&D for secure
                 Internet protocols, Clarke says", Government Computer
                 News, 31 October 2002.  URL
                 "http://www.gcn.com/vol1_no1/security/20382-1.html".

   [Kruse00]     Hans Kruse, "The Pitfalls of Distributed Protocol
                 Development: Unintentional Interactions between Network
                 Operations and Applications Protocols", Proceedings of
                 the 8th International Conference on Telecommunication
                 Systems Design, Nashville, TN, USA, March 2000.  URL
                 "http://www.csm.ohiou.edu/kruse/publications/
                 TSYS2000.pdf".

   [KLMS2000]    S. Kent, C. Lynn, J. Mikkelson, and K. Seo, "Secure
                 Border Gateway Protocol (S-BGP)", Proceedings of ISOC
                 Network and Distributed Systems Security Symposium,
                 Internet Society, Reston, VA, February 2000.

   [LD2002]      E. Lear and R. Droms, "What's in a Name: Thoughts from
                 the NSRG", expired Internet-Draft, December 2002.

   [MBFIPS01]    Ratul Mahajan, Steven M. Bellovin, Sally Floyd, John
                 Ioannidis, Vern Paxson, and Scott Shenker, "Controlling
                 High Bandwidth Aggregates in the Network", ACM Computer
                 Communications Review, Vol. 32, No. 3, July 2002.  URL
                 "http://www.icir.org/pushback/".

   [MBKQ96]      M. McKusick, K. Bostic, M. Karels, and J. Quarterman,
                 "Design and Implementation of the 4.4 BSD Operating
                 System", Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1996.

   [MGVK02]      Z. Mao, R. Govindan, G. Varghese, & R. Katz, "Route
                 Flap Dampening Exacerbates Internet Routing
                 Convergence", Proceedings of ACM SIGCOMM 2002, ACM,
                 Pittsburgh, PA, USA, August 2002.

   [NV02]        NetVision 2012 Committee,"DARPA's Ten-Year Strategic
                 Plan for Networking Research", (U.S.) Defense Advanced
                 Research Projects Agency, October 2002.  Citation for
                 acknowledgement purposes only.






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   [NSF02]       NSF Workshop on Network Research Testbeds, National
                 Science Foundation, Directorate for Computer and
                 Information Science & Engineering, Advanced Networking
                 Infrastructure & Research Division, Arlington, VA, USA,
                 October 2002.  URL "http://www-
                 net.cs.umass.edu/testbed_workshop/".

   [NSF03]       NSF ANIR Principal Investigator meeting, National
                 Science Foundation, Arlington, VA, USA.  January 9-10,
                 2003, URL "http://www.ncne.org/training/nsf-
                 pi/2003/nsfpimain.html".

   [NSF03a]      D. E. Atkins, et al., "Revolutionizing Science and
                 Engineering Through Cyberinfrastructure", Report of NSF
                 Advisory Panel on Cyberinfrastructure, January 2003.
                 URL "http://www.cise.nsf.gov/evnt/reports/
                 atkins_annc_020303.htm".

   [NSF03b]      Report of the National Science Foundation Workshop on
                 Fundamental Research in Networking.  April 24-25, 2003.
                 URL "http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~jorg/workshop1/NSF-
                 NetWorkshop-2003.pdf".

   [Floyd]       S. Floyd, "Papers about Research Questions for the
                 Internet", web page, ICSI Center for Internet Research
                 (ICIR), Berkeley, CA, 2003 URL
                 "http://www.icir.org/floyd/research_questions.html".

   [RFC-1510]    Kohl, J. and C. Neuman, "The Kerberos Network
                 Authentication Service (V5)", RFC 1510, September 1993.

   [RFC-1633]    Braden, R., Clark, D., and S. Shenker, "Integrated
                 Services in the Internet Architecture: an Overview",
                 RFC 1633, June 1994.

   [RFC-2082]    Baker, F. and R. Atkinson, "RIP-2 MD5 Authentication",
                 RFC 2082, January 1997.

   [RFC-2210]    Wroclawski, J., "The Use of RSVP with IETF Integrated
                 Services", RFC 2210, September 1997.

   [RFC-2154]    Murphy, S., Badger, M., and B. Wellington, "OSPF with
                 Digital Signatures", RFC 2154, June 1997.

   [RFC-2385]    Heffernan, A., "Protection of BGP Sessions via the TCP
                 MD5 Signature Option", RFC 2385, August 1998.





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   [RFC-2407]    Piper, D., "The Internet IP Security Domain of
                 Interpretation for ISAKMP", RFC 2407, November 1998.

   [RFC-2501]    Corson, S. and J. Macker, "Mobile Ad hoc Networking
                 (MANET): Routing Protocol Performance Issues and
                 Evaluation Considerations", RFC 2501, January 1999.

   [RFC-2990]    Huston, G., "Next Steps for the IP QoS Architecture",
                 RFC 2990, November 2000.

   [RFC-3221]    Huston, G., "Commentary on Inter-Domain Routing in the
                 Internet", RFC 3221, December 2001.

   [RFC-3234]    Carpenter, B. and S. Brim, "Middleboxes: Taxonomy and
                 Issues", RFC 3234, February 2002.

   [RFC-3424]    Daigle, L. and IAB, "IAB Considerations for UNilateral
                 Self-Address Fixing (UNSAF) Across Network Address
                 Translation", RFC 3424, November 2002.

   [RFC-3467]    Klensin, J., "Role of the Domain Name System (DNS)",
                 RFC 3467, February 2003.

   [RFC-3535]    Schoenwaelder, J., "Overview of the 2002 IAB Network
                 Management Workshop", RFC 3535, May 2003.

   [RFC-3387]    Eder, M., Chaskar, H., and S. Nag, "Considerations from
                 the Service Management Research Group (SMRG) on Quality
                 of Service (QoS) in the IP Network", RFC 3387,
                 September 2002.

   [RIPE]        RIPE (Reseaux IP Europeens), Amsterdam, NL.  URL
                 "http://www.ripe.net/ripe/".

   [Savage00]    Savage, S., Wetherall, D., Karlink, A. R., and
                 Anderson, T., "Practical Network Support for IP
                 Traceback", Proceedings of 2000 ACM SIGCOMM Conference,
                 ACM SIGCOMM, Stockholm, SE, pp. 295-306.  August 2000.

   [Schiller03]  J. I. Schiller, "Interception Technology: The Good, The
                 Bad, and The Ugly!", Presentation at 28th NANOG
                 Meeting, North American Network Operators Group
                 (NANOG), Ann Arbor, MI, USA, June 2003.  URL
                 "http://www.nanog.org/mtg-0306/schiller.html".







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   [SM03]        P. Sharma and R. Malpani, "IP Multicast Operational
                 Network Management: Design, Challenges, and
                 Experiences", IEEE Network, Vol.  17, No. 2, March
                 2003.

   [SMA03]       N. Spring, R. Mahajan, & T. Anderson, "Quantifying the
                 Causes of Path Inflation", Proceedings of ACM SIGCOMM
                 2003, ACM, Karlsruhe, Germany, August 2003.

   [WD02]        Walter Willinger and John Doyle, "Robustness and the
                 Internet:  Design and Evolution", Unpublished/Preprint,
                 1 March 2002, URL
                 "http://netlab.caltech.edu/internet/".

   [WIDE]        WIDE Project, Japan.  URL "http://www.wide.ad.jp/".

8.  Authors' Addresses

   Internet Architecture Board
   EMail:  iab@iab.org

   Internet Architecture Board Members
   at the time this document was published were:

   Bernard Aboba
   Harald Alvestrand (IETF chair)
   Rob Austein
   Leslie Daigle (IAB chair)
   Patrik Faltstrom
   Sally Floyd
   Mark Handley
   Bob Hinden
   Geoff Huston (IAB Executive Director)
   Jun-ichiro Itojun Hagino
   Eric Rescorla
   Pete Resnick
   Jonathan Rosenberg

   We note that Ran Atkinson, one of the editors of the document, was an
   IAB member at the time that this document was first created, in
   November 2002, and that Vern Paxson, the IRTF chair, is an ex-officio
   member of the IAB.









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Full Copyright Statement

   Copyright (C) The Internet Society (2004).  This document is subject
   to the rights, licenses and restrictions contained in BCP 78, and
   except as set forth therein, the authors retain all their rights.

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Acknowledgement

   Funding for the RFC Editor function is currently provided by the
   Internet Society.









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